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Basic info about Russian forest and forestry If is everything OK with forests in Russia? Russian old-growth forests - the world natural heritage Sustainable forestry in Russia
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A History of Russian Forestry and its Leaders
Chapter 4
Forest Valuation and Organization, Forest Management, and the Theory of Forest UseThe forest is nature's treasure, and man must use it wisely, not just for his own temporary gain, but for generations to come. It is easy to destroy a forest, but it is not easy to create a new one. It requires plenty of time and patience to wait until the trees are ready for use, especially as construction timber. (A. E. Teploukhov)
YEGOR FRANTSEVICH KANKRIN (1774-1845)In this chapter, it is necessary to devote special attention to Yegor Frantsevich Kankrin, Minister of Finance (1823-1844), who was in charge of the Forest Department. In 1826, at Kankrin's initiative, a reform of forest management was undertaken. Under this reform the Russian term for forester (lesnichii) replaced the German wordforstmeister. In addition, the Scientific Committee for Forests was created to study and standardize forestry and to prepare new legislation. Beginning in 1827, graduates of the Forest Institute were sent abroad "for further improvement in forest-related sciences"i The Society for the Promotion of Forestry was founded in 1832. Profits from forest activity rose. Through Kankrin's efforts, the first Russian language manual for forest organization appeared in 1830,1 seven years before the publication of the Russian translation of the German textbook Forest Regulation, which was written by the first director of the Tarand Forest Academy, Heinrich Cotta. In essence, the manual was a scientific and academic textbook and it played a positive role in forest management. Ye. F. Kankrin intended that the manual should "serve as a guide for executing existing laws. " It consisted of the following ten chapters: 1) Decreasing the need for forest products, 2) Forest organization in accordance with the type of management, 3) Preservation of forests, 4) Forest surveys, 5) Various general methods of forest management, 6) Natural reforestation after logging, 7) Artificial forest reproduction, 8) Forest organization plans, 9) Specific regulations on various forest issues, 10) Creation of complete regulation plans for forest units. "The first objective of this manual," wrote Kankrin, the official author, "is to attract the full attention of the mining authorities to this subject, for the science of forest management at production facilities is no less important than the science of mining. " In addition to addressing the applied aspects of forestry, the manual also warned against the wholesale adoption of foreign forestry practices on Russian soil. "...Every production facility must have enough new books on forestry and encourage young practitioners and officials to read them. It is also important to prepare a sufficient number of forestry field workers, especially in surveying and recording. It is necessary to instill in them a love of forestry, and discard the idea that it is too early to think about forest management in this country. When reading books, especially foreign ones, young foresters should constantly think about adapting their acquired knowledge to the environment in Russia, and compare the theoretical principles to local conditions and specific occurrences. Theoretical knowledge alone is of no practical use. Hence, the main goal of this manual is not to characterize the system of forestry abroad, but to apply the principles of that system to Russian needs, to promote not foreign, but Russian forest management..." These ideas were successfully implemented by many generations of Russian foresters: professors, scientists, and practitioners. i Among the first exchange students to Germany were V. S. Semyonov and A. A. Diatovsky, author of an excellent manual on practical forestry called Forest Renewal and Forestation (1843). The practice of sending students for training abroad continued until 1917. ALEKSANDR YEFIMOVICH TEPLOUKHOV (1811-1885)Aleksandr Yefimovich Teploukhov was born in the village of Karagaiskoye, Okhanski County, Perm Province to the family of a serf belonging to the Stroganov counts.2 In 1824, he was sent to a school of mining sciences. After graduation he served several years in the office of the Stroganovs. S. V. Stroganova was always interested in outstanding students in her schools, and apparently she realized that Teploukhov's abilities should be encouraged. She sent him to Saxony to the Mining Academy to increase his knowledge of mining sciences. Dissatisfied with the teaching at the mining academy, Teploukhov asked Stroganova to let him study forest sciences at the Tarand Forest Academy, and Stroganova granted his request. In 1838, A. Ye. Teploukhov graduated from the Tarand Forest Academy. He returned to Russia and received an instructor's position at the Petersburg School of Agriculture and Mining Sciences. One of his first extensive articles was published in 1840. It was the first original Russian manual and abridged course of forest regulation. In the introduction, Teploukhov wrote, "The main task of forestry in general is to inventory a forest area, the quantity and quality of the forest located on it and all the circumstances that influence its reproduction and timber production. This can be achieved only by collecting data and evaluating the forests, so we will describe in detail everything needed for data collection and evaluation from a silvicultural perspective. "3 In this article, A. Ye. Teploukhov wrote about the peculiarities of forest inventories and forest land surveys, about establishing borders and dividing the forest area into plots and blocks. He came to the profound and significant conclusion that in forest organization "one must think first of all about organizing the forest to protect it from fire." He wrote further about dividing the forest into stands by soil type, species, and age (age classes). He also addressed the topics of maps, marking borders, and forest records. This work was highly praised by his contemporaries. Many theses of this work were taken from a report, which he prepared for S.V. Stroganova on Maryino. Stroganova made available two forest parcels at her Maryino estate, Novgorod Province for field studies for the students of the Petersburg school. She appointed A. Ye. Teploukhov as manager. By the summer 1839, Teploukhov was already in Maryino. Long before Teploukhov surveyed it, the parcels had been rich in construction timber and firewood, mainly pine and spruce, which was now exhausted by cutting and fire. When Teploukhov arrived, the parcels were covered with wet wastelands and ugly brush in low areas and grasses in higher areas. According to archive materials, Teploukhov together with field workers from among his Petersburg students thoroughly explored different parts of the forest area over several weeks. In his report on the forest survey studies, he wrote to S.V. Stroganova concerning the 15-year-old maps he received from the Marino Bureau of Estates. "1 found many deficiencies, many discrepancies, many things that have changed. . . . In some places the maps show swamps where there is good construction timber. In other places there are swamps where the map shows forest... many roads, paths, and streams are not on the map at all." "You can find even less information," he wrote, "about forest divisions by species, but that is to be expected, since no Russian map has them yet. " Assuming that peasants "do not use firewood efficiently, and think that it is an inexhaustible gift of nature," A. Ye. Teploukhov suggested that, "...they need to learn the value of the forest, and the value of something is understood only when it has been assessed." That is why he suggested imposing a small tax on every cubic meter of wood used for domestic consumption and every construction log. In Ideas and Suggestions on Forestry of April 20, 1840, A. Ye. Teploukhov recommended that "after the forest survey is completed" a permanent forester in Maryino be appointed. He emphasized that the forester should manage the forests entrusted to him according to a prescribed plan. He would be independent of the local authority and subordinate only to the chief forester. As a result of his thorough investigation of the forests and analysis of the reasons for disorder in them, A. Ye. Teploukhov argued clearly, powerfully, and appropriately for establishing order in the forest. Intending to begin experimental plantings in 1840, A. Ye. Teploukhov suggested that the seed cones be dried not in stoves, where they seeds could be spoiled from excessive temperatures, but in saunas, heated to the appropriate level. A. Ye. Teploukhov had always been interested in the economic side of forestry. Thus, in the chapter "Forest Mensuration" he distinguished between "commercial" and "economic" forest use. About the former he wrote, "There is a common belief, one that is fatal to the forests, that the capital gained from cutting the whole forest at once and then invested will bring more profit than the gradual use of the forest. This is well known among our rich and experienced forest industrialists, who incessantly buy forest parcels only to plunder them. But with this type of usage, the forest soon becomes a desert, and our children will never have what their parents had. The forest must be like a bank that will never go bankrupt...." In the chapter "Proper Forest Management and Ways to Improve Forests," he addressed the questions of: "1) forest enclosure, 2) establishment of external border line, 3) cleanup of windfall from streams and burns, 4) swamp drainage, 5) division of forests into plots, and 6) fire prevention." In the conclusions to his report, A. Ye. Teploukhov wrote, "Forests always yield a return on invested capital through annual growth. Their condition improves with every decade, and they are ready at any time to return the initial investment with accrued interest." In the chapter on "Swamps," he wrote: "Swamps have undoubtedly existed there for a long time, but I believe that they spread incessantly as the forests vanishes. Burned areas and mossy swamps work hand in hand to gradually devour the forests." Before Teploukhov's arrival in Maryino, 12 parcels were designated for the applied agricultural school with the goal of preserving them. They were also used for firewood and woodworking materials, and for teaching practical agriculture to the students. A, Ye. Teploukhov convinced Stroganova of the need to establish experimental plots throughout the whole Marino estate. One of his reasons was that: "The students must engage in forest work under my management, and the timber cutting must be done in such areas and for such reasons, as required by proper forestry. Then the students' forestry practice will not be bounded by the limits of the study plots, where they get limited knowledge due to the insufficient variety of species. The whole Maryino forest will be open to them. There they will learn different types of cutting, seeding logging sites, sowing and planting. Considering the current situation in Russia, it is a necessity for agriculture, and it will increase the importance of the school, both in the general sense and in the opinion of all well-intentioned people." The plot survey specified the location of the plot, its area, the quality of the soil, species and "mixture ratio, age and density, and quality of the trees and groves, from an economic point of view." The quality of the soil was characterized, for example, as: "Damp, hillocky, covered with moss, and, in some places, with sedge, red bilberries and other broad-leaved grasses." As a firm supporter of natural reforestation in Maryino, A. Ye. Teploukhov planted seed and seedlings in the forest as an experiment, "mainly for the practical teaching of the young foresters from the agricultural school." A. Ye. Teploukhov planted, "with great effort," large quantities of 8- and 15-year old nurslings of Siberian cedar (Siberian pine), oak, elm, maple, ash, poplar, and different species of willow. During the fall of 1840, 6,031 pine trees were planted. The students observed their growth and development. As an experiment, forests were planted on meadow ground in particular. The general conclusion was that, "...it is impossible not to become convinced that planting seedlings is more advantageous than sowing seed." A. Ye. Teploukhov insisted that one must be familiar with local conditions when trying to solve practical problems. In this regard Teploukhov was critical of many manuals and guides on forestry. He wrote, "...Forestry scientists write and talk under the influence of theoretical knowledge, and, unfortunately, they often write on irrelevant topics, such as forestry methods that are appropriate only in Germany or that will be appropriate in our country only In the next century..." He considered nature to be the "most genuine and wise " book, and he regretted that "not many are familiar with its language." His affirmed that "as long as the conditions for observing nature are not of primary importance in a student's education, we cannot be successful in rational agriculture and forestry..." In 1842, a very interesting book by Teploukhov was published. In Instructions on Forestry.4 the author, in simple and accessible form, described the main problems of Russian forestry." When the school closed in 1847, Teploukhov was transferred to Perm Province as chief forester and a member of the management team for the Stroganov forests. Over the course of 13 years, 1841-1854, Teploukhov and his student surveyors and foresters surveyed and established 100-year-cutting cycles on more than 2.5 million acres of forest. Forty-seven recorders participated in the project, and under the direction of foresters and master surveyors they mapped nearly 2.8 million acres in 13 years. Forest stands and the groves within them of at least 13 acres were recorded if they contained deviations in soil, species and age. The surveys also included arable lands, meadows, villages, roads, etc.; 31,089 sites were mapped and described. When the surveys were completed, the process of organization was initiated in each forest. To stop the destruction of the forests and to preserve them, land parcels were selected that contained the best fir and spruce trees of medium age. These parcels contained more forest than cultivated land. They were designated as forest reserves where correct cutting methods were introduced. The mature stands were cut for logs and firewood, and the younger stands were thinned to make posts and rails. Thus, Teploukhov's work to survey, protect, and preserve the forest was thoroughly planned, prepared, and organized. The scale and detail of this work was unprecedented before A. Ye. Teploukhov and remained long after. Special attention was given to stopping intentional fires in the forest. Thus, it was forbidden to start a fire to clear meadows and arable lands. At any time of the year, violators received serious punishments. If the violators were not found, the community was held responsible for the fire. Burned areas were not converted to arable fields, but were left for the forests to grow back. The chapter "Prosecuting Violations and Legal Proceedings" is remarkably interesting for its examination of ways to prevent the "inappropriate or illegal actions" of peasants in the forest. It was established that "village and forest authorities are to care for the peasants' welfare. Their buildings should be kept in repair, and they should have enough firewood and construction timber close to their homes to the extent possible, as allowed by forestry regulations." Providing the peasants with sufficient amounts of timber should have excluded all theft of timber. Therefore any timber theft was regarded as an unreasonable deliberate act which had to be prevented. The fine was fixed regardless of the amount of stolen timber, so that people regarded the fine not as compensation to the landlord for his loss, but as a means to prevent violation of the regulations, as a price for illegal acts. Teploukhov wrote, "Whether the peasant cut one log or twenty, he is guilty only ofwillfulness. Willful cutting of large amounts of wood over a long period of time cannot be regarded as a bigger crime than cutting a small amount, because this is the fault of the forest guards, who are responsible for finding the violations early on by making their rounds frequently." The forest guards were charged to remember the following article of the regulations. "If a forest supervisor has poor control over the forest guards or is negligent in his duties and the willful cutting of timber or other violations have taken place, then he will be subject to a fine of up to one silver ruble, arrest, and dismissal...." Teploukhov presented his acquired experience in his major work Forest Organization on Country Estates, which was published in 1848. The work attracted much interest and was republished without changes in 1850.5 This project was the first original independent Russian research on forest management, and, in a broader sense, on forestry.iii The originality of the work lies with two ideas that were impossible to find in any of the books published at the time and couldn't be borrowed from someone else's experience. Firstly, Teploukhov dedicated his work to the very difficult problem of managing landlord estates under the conditions of serfdom, which were unknown in Europe. V. S. Semenov had written a manual for the organization of state forests, the management of which was simplified by the vast amount of legislation and could be easily standardized. But deviations in managing privately owned forests were great, as dictated by various financial and other considerations of the forest owner. A second aspect is related to the problem of serfdom in Russia, which created unique economic conditions. In regard to the forests, this uniqueness consisted of the fact that peasants were allowed to use the forests for free. The sale of timber was insignificant, and consequently the direct profits from the forests were very small. At the same time the profits from quitrent were significant. Given these conditions, the landowner needed to both produce forest products and to distribute them to consumers. This necessitated the introduction of efficient forest use.iv Teploukhov solved the problem from a slightly different perspective. He understood proper forest regulation and forestry not as a way to get the maximum yield or profit, but as the best way to manage the forest. In this regard, his manual seems peculiar at first. The manual is a mix of regulations on forest regulation, silviculture and administration. He showed how to balance the landlord's and peasant's interests in the forest. He showed the peasants the advantages of forest conservation; without it every log would be located farther away and would take more time to get, meadows would become poorer, cattle pasture in the nearest forest would become less productive, etc. As for the landowners, he pointed out the benefits of guaranteed profits "not only for the landowners and their peasants, but also for the benefit of their successors" as opposed to larger short-term profits from the sale of timber. Teploukhov emphasized that forest regulation is essential to guarantee profits. The cost of forest regulation is very high initially, and additional expenses are required to maintain it later. However, Teploukhov argued that no enterprise can manage without expenses. He warned that many forest owners, when talking about efficient forest practices, understand only the outward aspect of it, i.e., how the forest looks. Quality forest regulation is only the beginning of proper forestry. The next step requires skillful forest management. That's why "it is often difficult to define where forest regulation ends and forest management begins." The manual has detailed sections devoted to main description. These include geographical location, site location, climate, soil and subsoil, condition of boundaries, special rights and responsibilities of the landowner, the ratio of forest to other land, forestation of fields, burns, barren land, and wetlands, condition of forest stands, quantity of windfall, the time and direction of previous fires, historical notes on previous practices, suggestions for creating forest blocks, the condition of bordering forests, maximizing timber profits, local prices, improving flumes and roads, building guard posts, mill construction, thoughts on the volume of forest product sales, studying the impact of earlier sales on the condition of the forest, suggestions on fulfilling the needs of the landowner and the peasants for forest products, plans for organizing management and forest protection, logging plans (charting cutting rotations), designating forest plots for peasant use, the size and direction of logging sites and reforestation methods, designation of thinning sites, establishing reserves, thoughts on introducing efficient forest use among the peasants. Teploukhov opposed the use of insignificant innovations at the expense of things that were more important. As a supporter of rational forest protection and preservation, he stood against the sentimental defenders of the trees who opposed the cutting of birch for making brooms and linden for making bast shoes. He believed that with efficient forestry practices (correct forest management) such losses as those described would be recovered with "a few hours growth." "Just protect your forests from fire and don't be afraid of the time-honored habits of the Russian peasant. " As a genuine champion of the people's welfare, Teploukhov even suggested that the forest territory in the north could be reduced to make way for more hay and other fields in order to support the living standard of the peasants and thus reduce the potential for damage to the forests. At the same time, he was opposed to small, scattered fields. He believed that it was possible to widen the hay fields by turning forests along the rivers and streams into meadows. This would have achieved other goals as well, like decreasing fire danger and establishing well-defined natural borders between forest plots. It is worth noting that Teploukhov favored natural boundaries and approved of clearing breaks and sight lines only in the absence of natural physical boundaries. He recommended that careful thought be given to creating clearances, their orientation in space, and their size (he recommended the golden section ratio of 2:3) since they would be cut once and last forever. Teploukhov left us his thoughts on what an ideally managed forest would look like. He knew that such a forest could not exist in nature, but it was a worthy goal. The eight points of his plan are as follows:
1. Borders: A forest should have clearly defined and stable borders. The forest tracts should be divided into blocks with permanent and clear borders. He considered forest regeneration through seeding and planting to be the simplest and easiest form of reforestation, and that it could be easily mechanized and quickly mastered by peasants. The main obstacle to using this method in the north was the low profitability of the northern forests, which required that all direct costs be avoided when possible, even at the cost of increasing the reforestation time of cuts. He recommended that the forests in the north be allowed to regenerate naturally. Teploukhov also presented the principles of forest typology in his work. "A stand," he wrote, "is an area of the forest that is different from other areas in 1) tree species, 2) age or years, 3) density, and 4) quality or worth." When differentiating homogeneous or pure stands from heterogeneous of mixed stands, Teploukhov noted the species and their proportion in the latter type. Since "the proportions in mixed stands" can be different, he believed it important to define the proportions in decimals, such as birch 0.5, pine 0.25, aspen 0.25. Emphasizing the importance of the soil and subsoil on the condition of the forest, Teploukhov recommended differentiating soil types. He based this differentiation on: 1. the composition and degree of adherence of its parts (sandy, clayey, loamy, marled and limey, meager and chemozemy, rocky and sated, compact, heavy, crumbly and light, hot and cold); and 2. the degree of moisture (very dry, dry, damp, moist, wet and bare, and bare swamp). Teploukhov also believed it important to characterize the subsoil of the stand as granite, gneiss, lime, sand, etc. Since the "soil cover, consisting of ground cover and other small shrubs and plants living on it, affects the fertility of the earth," Teploukhov suggested describing the composition of the mantel and ground cover, which determine soil variations. He can be considered the founder of the science on forest types, nearly a century before its further brilliant development by G. F. Morozov. Teploukhov's book, as unfortunately happens rather often in Russia, was soon forgotten. While working on the Stroganov estates,6 Teploukhov divided the forests into forest districts, ranger districts, riding circuits and walking circuits. The divisions that he introduced exist still today in a somewhat different form. He also began the practice of marking trees to be cut. Teploukhov also introduced the terms thinning cut and selective cut.7 He wrote, "Thinning can provide the peasants with valuable materials so necessary to their everyday lives, such as poles, posts and rails." He maintained that in places where bast production was well developed and was a source of sustenance for the peasants, the landowner should make the proper management of the linden forests a priority. His words on the misunderstood concepts of forest use and forest misuse are remarkable. Teploukhov wrote, "In our country's forestry practices we often confuse the words 'use' and 'misuse.' The forest grows so that it can be used. ... It would be wrong to call the use of the birch forests for steamship fuel, for brooms, for house decorations on Trinity day, misuse. No, that is not misusing the forests. But when fire destroys a forest that has not been organized, that is misuse. The peasants," he continued, "use the forest, but do not misuse it, for the essentials of their everyday life..." In this article the author, for the first time in a Russian forestry journal, raised the question of the struggle for survival in the forest. When Russian foresters say that this issue was addressed in literature before Darwin, they are usually referring to either foreign sources or to the writings of Ye. F. Zyablovsky. Russian forestry literature never cites A. Ye. Teploukhov on this question, although his treatment of it is exceptionally interesting. "Every tree," he wrote, "requires sufficient space in the earth and air to fully develop its roots and branches. When these conditions are insufficiently met in stands that are too dense, the trees stop growing and are spoiled..." He illustrated his theoretical suppositions with the following example: "Some forest species during their struggle with each other in their early years, lose much growth. Thus, a fir grove, if it is too dense, will in 15 to 20 years stop growing to the point that the young trees will reach a diameter of only 1 vershok (1.75 inches). When these trees grow in an open stand of consistent age, the trees will grow to 4-5 vershoks in diameter." Unfortunately, Russian specialized forestry literature nowhere mentions that the first Russian silviculturist to use the words thinning and selective cutting and to outline the theory of these cutting methods was A. Ye. Teploukhov. In addition, the article is valuable because of the author's interest in the role of the forest in water retention. "In order to protect the rivers and streams, which feed the ponds, from drying up, it is essential to preserve and create forests at the source, where the spring comes from the earth. The forest holds the snow and rainwater for a long time and it gradually runs into the streams, ensuring a consistent depth in the rivers and ponds. If the soil is cleared of forests and growth, the snow and rainwater will immediately run off of it into the streams and rivers. It will flood their banks, it will build up in the ponds and sometimes break through the dikes. The resulting shortage of water will bring damaging droughts. ...In forest preserves clearcuts should never be allowed under any circumstances. If they contain very valuable trees, these may be cut selectively in small quantities and from various places so that there are no clearings or empty spots. If young trees have begun to grow in the shade of others and in former clearings, then in appropriate cases the seed trees may be cut very gradually. If they are not valued species, they should be left to lie after cutting to decompose. The main thing is to ensure that there is an abundance of ground cover on the soil, and deadfall contributes greatly to its formation." This article was a continuation of the author's thoughts on the dependence of a territory's water cycle on logging.8 Teploukhov also wrote interesting articles on forest soil science. In one article,9 for example, he explained the concept of soil and the need to study it, and described ways to determine the quantity of humus in the soil and test it for the presence of carbonic lime. In another article,10 he advocated preserving the forest mantel for it provided a source of nutrition for tree growth. He wrote, "Destroying the forest litter means decreasing the fertility of the forest soil and deterioration of the forest." The major economic significance of logging waste and site clean-up is attested to by the fact that even today much time is devoted to its discussion and the issue is addressed in special literature. Teploukhov was undoubtedly correct when he said that solutions to the problem must vary depending on the presence of immature trees, the soil and economic conditions, and the landscape and the grade of the site. Teploukhov died in 1885. It is strange that not a single Russian journal dealing with forestry, even to a small degree, carried an obituary upon his death. It is no less strange that his friends and relatives did not think it necessary to show what kind of person he was in his private life. He married the daughter of a professor of the Tarand Academy. What sort of worthy qualities must a person have had who was not afraid to join her life with Teploukhov? He was still a serf when she went with him to a strange and, according to hearsay, wild country, where they settled in an isolated village in Perm Province. Kuyninka Park in Il'insk remains as a living monument to A. Ye. Teploukhov. It has grown luxurious from the ancestors planted by him in 1842. The park now contains nearly 400 species of plants. The breadth of vision expressed in Teploukhov's theoretical research and practical work gives every reason to consider him a great Russian forest scientist of international importance. A. F. Rudzky rightfully called Teploukhov the patriarch of Russian forestry.
ii This work was nothing less that a textbook for the students of the Petersburg School of Agriculture and Mining, who did their field studies on the two forest parcels of the Maryino estate in Novgorod province. Teploukhov was given charge of these parcels with the rights of a manager. ALFONSE ROMANOVICH VARGAS DE BEDEMAR 1816-1902Alfonse Romanovich Vargas de Bedemar was one of the founders of the Russian school of forest mensuration.11 The descendent of an ancient Spanish family and a count, Vargas de Bedemar was born on his father's estate in Helsinger, Denmark. He received his education in Plen and Kiel (Holstein) and studied forest sciences at the Tarand Forestry Academy in Saxony. At the age of 25 he went to Russia, where he lived to the end of his days; Russia became his second homeland.vi In December 1841, Vargas de Bedemar was admitted to the Petersburg Forest and Survey Institute. Four months later he finished the science course and, in April 1842, he was sent with the rank of master sergeant of the Foresters Corps to the Lisino forest training center. In 1844, Vargas de Bedemar graduated from the Institute with the rank of lieutenant of the Foresters Corps and title of reserve forester. Over the next five years, Vargas de Bedemar worked in forest regulation in the Tula, Petersburg, and Simbirsk Provinces. In 1846, his first work appeared. It was devoted to research on stands of the Tula Province and presented growth rate tables for closed stands of oak, birch, aspen and linden.12 In 1850, his brilliant work The Study of Forest Stock and Growth in the Stands of the St. Petersburg Province from 1843 to 184813 appeared as separate publication. It was the first original Russian work on forest mensuration. It was valuable not only for its sample tables on forest growth rates and growth increments, but also for the inclusion of a wide range of issues, such as the effect of climate, geological structure and soil on forest growth, the properties of timber species, etc. In the introduction the author emphasized that, "sample tables on forest growth increments compiled in Western Europe cannot serve as a manual for forest mensuration in the St. Petersburg and other adjoining provinces." Unfortunately, the book includes very little on methods of gathering and processing data. This is especially disappointing since the tables are still being used in the field and are included in the forest survey manuals for the northwestern region of Russia. Tables were compiled on five classes of site quality. In the process, the author compared his data, received from experimental plots that he laid out, with Cotta's data for Saxony and Pfeil's for Prussia. This comparison supported his conclusion that with worsening local growth conditions, the quantity of trees per unit of territory consistently rises. In 1849, Vargas de Bedemar was appointed to manage the forests of the Tsarskoye Selo government estate where, under his management, swampy areas were drained using drainage canals and pine and larch were planted. In 1862, Vargas de Bedemar was invited to manage the Experimental Forest Estate for the newly created Petrovsky Agricultural and Forest Academy.vii The territory of 148.3 hectares was divided into fourteen blocks and each block was surveyed in detail. Sixteen experimental plots were laid out, two of which exist still today. Vargas de Bedemar also established goals and outlined a management plan.viii Vargas de Bedemar wrote, by hand, a 281-page report, entitled Survey of the Forest Estate of the Petrovsky Agricultural Academy (1863). In it he emphasized that the estate should be kept in condition "to serve as a model for the rational application of forest sciences and permit students of the Academy to study in the field the technical methods of forest management."14 The experimental plots laid out in 1862 in pine-birch stands were the first in the study of the growth rates of mixed stands. Only in 1905, at the congress of German experimental forest stations, did Professor A. Schwappach suggest that mixed stands be studied as part of a task plan.15 In 1870, Vargas de Bedemar was assigned a project to gradually reforest the steppes of the Stavropol independent inherited estate. In 1871, he participated in the planting of three thousand white acacias and poplars. Despite the fact that a large portion of the plantings died for lack of care, Vargas de Bedemar considered the beginning of the project successful and he suggested that oak be planted in some places. This was one of the first attempts at steppe reforestation. In 1875, Vargas de Bedemar was appointed as head manager of the forest section of the Department of Apanages. He remained at this post until 1882 when the council was abolished and Vargas de Bedemar retired with the rank of privy councilor. Vargas de Bedemar received seven Russian orders for his services in the field of forestry. At the order of the Danish king, he received the commodore's cross of the Order of Deneborg. A. R. Vargas de Bedemar died in 1902 and was buried in Pavlovsk near St. Petersburg.
vi The reason Vargas (as he was called in Russia) went to Russia has not been documented. One version tells of a plot against his father, a government minister, who suddenly died shortly thereafter. FYODOR KARLOVICH ARNOLD 1819-1902Fyodor Karlovich Arnoldix was born in St. Petersburg to the family of Karl Arnold, a German who had taken Russian citizenship. His mother was the niece of an impoverished general of Peter the Great's reign, Broun. Fyodor was the youngest of three sons. In 1831, Arnold enrolled at the Petersburg Forest Institute, where he graduated in 1838.16 After finishing officer's training in 1840, he was sent to the Tarand Forest Academy and the Agronomy Institute in Germany. He took classes and in the summer he did forest surveys. He returned from his studies abroad earlier than planned (in March 1842) because of strained relations with his advisor Heinrich Kotte. Upon his return from Germany, Arnold worked on organizing forests in Vyatsk, Orenburg, Tula, Kaluga provinces and in the Crimea. He worked with Vargas de Bedemar on the organization of abatis construction in Tula. When work began on organizing steppe reforestation, together with V. Ye. Graff, he inspected more than thirty state plots, which later (1845) served as the foundation for the famous Veliko-Anadol forest district.x In November 1843, he was promoted to lieutenant, returned to St. Petersburg and entered the Forest Committee as a clerk. In 1845, Instructions for Survey Work on Forest Estates Selected for Proper Forestry Management, which Arnold compiled, was published. The Instructions further developed the hypotheses of Ye. F. Kankrin (1830) and established the principles for Russian forest regulation in state forests.xi The Instructions defined the goals of forest regulation as: determining timber quality, harvesting timber without dam aging the forest estate, forest protection, controlling the condition of the forest, and implementing measures for forest reclamation. The Instructions distinguished three levels of forest regulation corresponding to the intensity of the forest management plan. Forest management units were defined as districts consisting of one or more forest estates, for which forest management plans were compiled. The Instructions introduced the idea of harvest rotations, and the size of the final cutting was defined according to a normal harvest site. To implement the forest regulation plan, survey parties included officers of the Foresters Corps, land surveyors and topographers. An officer of the Foresters Corps, the chief surveyor, led the survey party. These general principles of forest regulation, as well as the position of surveyor, have remained practically unchanged even today. In 1846, the Guide to Forest Regulation and Mensuration was published. In the same year, Arnold compiled and gave the Free Economic Society the first map of Russia's state forests. For this work he received a gold medal. In 1848, F. K. Arnold started his teaching activity when he began to read lectures on forestry at the St. Petersburg School for Agriculture. Beginning in October 1855, he taught forest mensuration at the Forest Institute. In 1857, he began to teach state forest practices and statistics (classes for officers), forest mensuration, forest regulation, forestation, and forest protection (cadet classes) at the St. Petersburg Forest and Surveying Institute. Arnold's work Guide to Forestry was published in 1854 and 1856. In 1855, he founded the gazette Forestry and Hunting and was its editor until 1857. In 1858, his textbook on forest mensuration17 appeared, and in 1860, Forestry: A Manual for the Efficient Care of the Forests was published. In 1876, Arnold was appointed director of the Petrovsky Agricultural and Forest Academy in Moscowxii There, from 1877-1879, he taught the history of forestry.xiii Arnold maintained an active public life. He worked on the establishment of several forestry schools, the organization of the Russian National Industrial Arts Exhibition in Moscow (1882), and the Fifth Russian National Congress of Foresters and Forest Owners in Moscow (1883). He was selected as an honorary member of the Council of the Ministry of State Properties. In 1883, he helped to establish the Moscow Forest Society and was made a member of the Forest Committee. In 1894, he was awarded the Order of the White Eagle. In 1898, Arnold was the first member of the Forest Corps to receive the rank of active privy councilor. The Russian Forest, in three-volumes, is considered to be Arnold's most important work. He published it in 1890 together with V. A. Tikhonov.18 iv Arnold had developed the idea for the book much earlier, but the stimulus for its writing came from the royal Statute on the Conservation of the Forests of April 4. 1888.xv The introduction to the Statute states that: 1. The regulations of this statute apply to all forests belonging to the state, independent agencies, various institutions, societies and private parties. 2. To conserve the forests (Article 1) the following measures are to be taken: a) protection of the forests from depletion and destruction, and b) proper forest management and generation of new forests, 3. From the total volume of forest estates (Article 1) those forests the preservation of which is essential to the state and public interest will be subject to special conservation measures. These will be calledpro-tected forests. The first volume of Arnold's book is devoted to a review of the state of Russian forests, acquainting the reader with the significance of the forest and the spatial distribution of forests in Russia. It also addresses the forest conservation law of April 4,1888, the contents of conservation laws in other western European countries, and the tasks of forestry in the future. The second volume addresses the economic elements of forestry, soil description, the structure and life of trees, forest practices in deciduous and coniferous forests, etc. The last chapters are devoted to natural forest regeneration, nurseries and tree farms, and sowing and planting forests. The third volume describes regulation and survey methods for forest estates, principles of wood science, equipment and methods of wood processing, forest product specification (marketing), mechanical and chemical methods of wood processing including tapping and transporting logs. P. K. Arnold died in 1902 and was buried in St. Petersburg.
ix The father of F. K. Arnold, Karl Ivanovich, was the first director of the Moscow Academy of Commercial Sciences. His oldest brother, Ivan, who was deaf and dumb from the age of two, founded and directed a school for deaf and dumb children. The middle brother, Yuri, became a musician, famous in both Russia and abroad. He was a renowned specialist in the theory of ancient Russian church and folk singing. ALEKSANDR FELITSIANOVICH RUDZKY 1838-1901Aleksandr Felitsianovich Rudzky had tremendous influence on the Russian school of forest regulation and mensuration. He was born to the family of a forester in the Chernigov Province.19 Rudzky graduated from the Chernigov gymnasium with a gold medal and enrolled in the St. Petersburg Forest and Survey Institute, where he graduated in 1860. He was commissioned as a master sergeant and sent to the Lisino training forest district for field studies with the cadets of the Forest Institute. In 1861, Rudzky was sent to study forest regulation and management in Western Europe. He was in Germany, France, Belgium, Holland and England. He sent articles from abroad, the best of which. From Garrona to Andur and A Look at Modern European Forestry, were published in the journal of the Ministry of State Properties (MSP) for 1862. When Rudzky returned home, he visited many forest districts to study Russian forests in depth. He published a series of articles in the journal of the MSP under the title Letters on the Russian Forests. In Petersburg, he presented several public lectures on the theme "General Principles of Forest Regulation," and published several articles about state forest practices in the journal The Russian Herald. The success of Rudzky's public lectures and the breadth of his vision on state forest practices earned him deserved respect. As a result, Rudzky was offered a teaching position at the Forest Institute. However, he considered himself too young and inexperienced to assume such a high post and, instead, managed to gain appointment as a forester at the Zasursko-Seleksinsk model forest district in the Penza Province, where he worked tirelessly for five years. In 1876, Rudzky assumed the post of forest regulation instructor in the department of forest mensuration at the Petersburg Forest Institute.xvi In 1878, the department was divided in two: the department of forest mensuration, which was chaired by P. N. Verekha, and the department of forest regulation, which Rudzky chaired until his death. Rudzky was a talented educator who inculcated his students with a love for forestry and tried to broaden their outlook. He helped create three new disciplines at the Institute: forest engineering, horticulture,xvii and wildlife management. Rudzky loved his students and encouraged their interests. He strove to help them master the knowledge of their field. He attached great importance to field studies for students in the forest. Throughout his life Rudzky worked relentlessly to create a national forest regulation system,xviii based on the study of the economic and natural characteristics of the Russian forest, Russian industry, and the needs of the Russian people. His theoretical legacy lasted for many decades. Rudzky's main works are Forest Mensuration (three editions),20 Forest Regulation (two editions),21 A Brief Summary of Forest Regulation.22 Guide to the Organization of Russian Forests (two editions).23 Reference Book for the Forester (in the second edition called The Forestry Reference Book).24 and Discussions on the Forest.25 He also contributed greatly as the editor of such major works as Guide to Horticulture for Practitioners by N. Goshe and The Complete Encyclopedia of Russian Agriculture and Related Sciences. He also founded and edited several journals and gazettes. A. F. Rudzky died on June 27, 1901, in the small town of Vershuba near Vilnius. Over his grave stands a monument with the words: "To a Friend of Youth." Rudzky criticized the German orientation toward so-called mathematical forest mensuration (textbooks by Bayer and Kuntze), as well as German forest mensuration, which was called "forestry stereometry" by the Germans. In 1880, Rudzky's article The Content and Direction of Forest Mensuration26 was published. Rudzky was long criticized by some for not considering the consequences of what he wrote in the article and for causing stagnation in the school of Russian forest mensuration. He wrote, "Forest mensuration has a right to exist only because it meets specific needs in the practice of forest management. Therefore, it must concentrate on meeting those needs and not chase after scientific breakthroughs that are not within its realm... The unpopularity of forest mensuration in our country is due in large part to the fact that it has been turned into 'forest mathematics.' I am determined to counteract this false trend for, in reality, the baggage of mathematical knowledge needed for forest mensuration is relatively small. Even a person who has forgotten his gymnasium courses will not encounter serious mathematical obstacles in understanding those methods needed to correctly estimate forest stock and growth rates." (p. 45) Rudzky's true ideas on forest mensuration can be found in his textbook Forest Mensuration. In the chapter, "Methods of Forest Mensuration," he wrote that it is necessary for proper forest management to determine the forest stock and growth rate, which give the total value of the separate boles. It is also necessary to calculate the volume of logs made from the boles. The water displacement method for calculating volume "is always cumbersome in forestry since it deals with such large volumes." Therefore, "it became the practice to calculate tree volume using stereometric formulas ..." Considering that "the complex ity of the formulas does not guarantee their accuracy." Rudzky protested not against the use of mathematics in forest mensuration, but against the use of "dazzling mathematics," which prevented "silviculturists from looking critically at its role in forestry." He opposed the unfounded impression that "mathematics in current methods of measuring timber is the end itself and not the means." This opinion was the basis for his rejection of the organization principles of the majority of German textbooks, which presented every previous method and mean of forest mensuration and the instruments they used. This cumbersome approach prevented foresters from finding information in the textbook that they needed for their daily work. "It is desirable to have a statistical investigation of the degree of accuracy and efficiency of various methods of calculating forest stock and growth rates and the degree of accuracy, convenience and reliability of various instruments. This must be done to reliably recommend the best methods and instruments. Everything else should go into the archives." Rudzky attempted to create a textbook (manual) on forest mensuration that was convenient to use in daily forestry practice. "The merit of a textbook lies not in its size but in its internal content. To garnish this content with drawings of various strange instruments and formulas three yards long will perhaps fool an ignoramus, but it only detracts from the true merit of the textbook, decreases the respect of many for the subject and clouds understanding of the book's actual content." Rudzky had a deep understanding of the goals, tasks and needs of forestry. He believed that forest mensuration, as a unique science, should serve the goals of forestry. "The craft, using scientific methods of research, must always search for utility, only utility, and nothing but utility. If it turns out in the future that some breakthrough has no practical application, how can it be included in the theory of the science?" Rudzky knew modern Russian forest practices well. He understood that the blind application of German forest mensuration methods, which were developed for small managed forests, would not work in the immense forests of Russia. At the same time, he never opposed the use of mathematical methods in an appropriate experiment if it simplified field and laboratory work. He was no stranger to delicate research that exposed the complex interactions in the forests. His plan to study the forms of tree trunks attests to this. "The forest is very diverse, but for the person coming to the forest for the first time in their life, the diversity is probably most obvious in the density and height of the trees, the colors of the bark and leaves. The variety of forms of the individual trees is not immediately obvious. When this variety is finally discovered, a first step has been taken. In the study of nature this is the discovery of diversity among what seems to the novice to be uniformity. The next step is to study the noted diversity, to study the reasons for it, to discover the order among the chaos, to establish order out of the disorder through the discovery of laws that govern the disorder. When this general path of natural science development is applied to the study of trunk forms it turns out that the observed phenomena are here too diverse and numerous. The same methods that are used generally in the natural sciences - experimentation and observation - must be called upon. The forest evaluator, however, cannot create experiments because he is not able to replicate the phenomenon under study in the forest. Thus, one of the mightiest tools of the natural sciences, especially of physics and chemistry, which are obligated to experiment, is not available for forest mensuration. It must be satisfied with another method, that of observation, which is broader, more difficult and less reliable. Conducting research is complicated not only by the diversity of the phenomena, but also by the complexity of the reasons which collectively produce them. It happens, for example, that foliation affects the form of the trunk, but it also true that not all foliated trunks have the same form. Consequently, the form of the trunk is affected not only by foliation, but by other factors, as well. Some of these causes may be discovered through consistent observation of certain characteristics. These include the age of the tree, its origin, the soil in which it grew, the care it received, damage that it incurred, etc. When complex causes of effect are discovered in this observable chaos, it becomes necessary to define the effect of every cause, to study, classify and explain the diversity. This work cannot be done without analysis, above all mental analysis. When a substantive explanation of complex causes is required, one must point a priority first of all to forms of divergence, which must then be looked for in the forest. Consequently, intellectual analysis will point to a deductive path, subject to selection, and material analysis, following these paths, will seek out cases in the forest where one of the factors, hypothesized through deduction, is absent although all other factors are present. Then the researcher has to hypothesize a general law of trunk formation from a number of observations and from the effect of various factors discovered through analysis. After these calculations are made, the third and final stage of the process remains that of verification. In the case we have selected, a large number of factors cannot be connected, as happens in experiments, but are discovered a priority. This is why we cannot be certain that we didn 't miss one of these factors. We establish this certainty through verification, achieved by comparing our conclusions with the results of specially organized direct observations. If this result, despite the diversity of accompanying factors, supports the conclusion, the conclusion is probable. The more complex the case taken for verification and the more cases that are verified, the more probable the conclusion. This could be, in general terms, the best method for calculating tree measurement." In regard to Russian forest regulation, Rudzky sagaciously wrote, "Forest regulation can be firmly established only when its importance is recognized, when we are convinced that it is not a luxury, but, on the contrary, a necessity for creating proper practices in our forests. The absence of appropriate practices is a weakness in our state forestry, which is strong in the areas of protection and marketing. We are far from thinking that proper forest practice will be automatically implemerited with the creation of a plan, but, nonetheless, we recognise that the development of a reasonable plan is one of the conditions for introducing proper practices in the forest. In addition, forest regulation has an undoubted controlling value, because control through forest regulation has to do not with petty bureaucratic issues, but with the basic vital issues of the economy. With this dual significance, forest regulation deserves the full attention of the authorities and should be appropriately organized and implemented by trained personnel. " The forest manager must not neglect any types of forest use in his descriptions. "The forest manager who would neglect to thoroughly study factors relating to grass cutting in the forest because it is a trivial use of the forest, would be making a big mistake. Every enterprise is made up of trifles and none of them can be ignored without causing damage to the whole." The forest manager also must remember that an explanatory note on the forest management plan is not a scientific treatise, but an economic report that will be used by forest workers. "The general description should be easily readable, not too voluminous. Therefore we recommend that, while he not miss anything that could be important for the future of the undertaking, the forest manager should make his description as brief as possible. He should especially avoid supplementing his work with excerpts from various books to make it seem more scientific." Rudzky deeply believed that the practice of Russian forestry management would fundamentally improve. "We cannot doubt that public interest in the forest is now much greater that previously, and that the management of our state forests is, evidently, on the way to rational reorganization... We boldly express not only the hope, but the certainty that in the near future, after the refinement of regulations, state forest management will be gradually introduced in at least the more densely populated areas of Russia. Appropriate forest practices will be established that will meet the standards of both industrial development in the country and modern forest management science. Formerly obstacles to introducing forestry management were not only on paper, but in practice as well. One certain obstacle was the lack of reliable trained personnel. However, thirty years ago a sharp turn to the better was made in this regard, and there is no doubt that this is not such a problem today and Russia has, in general, enough trained personnel to confidently handle the protection of this immense public property. Regardless of how deficient our practices are today, they have given us a certain supply of observations and experience, however negative. Several individual experiments are not devoid of positive results. The schools, also, have done their job little by little. The level of forest management knowledge and general development of foresters has undoubtedly improved. All of this leads us to the conclusion that the time is coming, and it won't be long, when our forestry practices will be fundamentally better. Inept practitioners will be a thing of the past, and Russian foresters will boldly embark on a path to gradually improve their field. Its foundation will become more stable as we devote more study to the unique characteristics of our Russian forestry. We must refuse to slavishly imitate others, but consciously adapt general scientific data to the specifics of each case. As forestry continues to develop along this path, the intensity of work in the field will increase. The forest will begin to consume more capital and more intellectual labor and the size of management units will decrease. However, as expenditures increase, the gross income from the forests will increase even more, and, even more important, the forest will not only be protected as well as it is today, but even better. This increased intensity cannot help but affect forest regulation. " Rudzky attributed a significant role in the improvement of Russian forestry to the foresters themselves. "Of course, the introduction of an intensive forest management program will require that the forester, as the manager of the forest, exhibit great independence and responsibility toward his duties. We have already said that the quality of trained Russian foresters is relatively high in scientific and general development, and such a group can work independently and not fear the accompanying responsibility." Rudzky was one of the first people in Russian forest regulation work to propose the division of stands according to natural historical conditions. He called plots divided accord ing to this criteria conditional monoforms or sections. "The forester should, after a brief inspection, mentally divide all stands of the forest estate, regardless of their extreme hetero geneity, into a small number of conditional monoforms. The point of creating a small number of subdivisions is not to de crease the amount of work, but to ensure correct results. Even if there were time to establish a large number of subdivisions. the very abundance of them would create a clouded picture with blurred lines; the impression would be pale and diffused and the results would be devoid of required precision. Here, as in many questions of application, chasing after tiny differences would be as much of a mistake as ignoring such differences when conducting a scientific experiment"23 As an example he cited seven sections, later called forest types. In the work cited above, Rudzky was the first Russian forester to advocate the creation of a unified classification system for our forests. "Quality classes are, of course, artificial and have large gaps that do not exist in nature. This is what allows us to create a general classification system that is no'i based on local observations. A general classification of soils is advantageous because judgments can be made on the relative favorableness of growing conditions in different areas." Rudzky was a remarkable forest scientist and left a brilliant mark on the theory and practice of Russian forestry. For example, the reconnaissance method of designating plots using survey lines, which he proposed in 1863, is still used today. It has been included in many manuals, beginning with Instructions on the Organization of State Forests of 1894. The Instructions of 1900 introduced a new organizational-management unit into the theory and practice of Russian for estry called the management unit. This idea of Rudzky solved a burning issue for forestry at the time and established a place for management in the system of organizational-management methods of forest regulation.xix In the Guide to the Organization of Russian Forests (2nd edition, 1893), A. F. Rudzky wrote about the ethical relationship between man and the forest. "The forest is capable of fulfilling not only man's material needs, but also many ethical needs... The idea of man as a being interested only in meeting his bodily requirements is undoubtedly false... We can rightfully consider the opportunity to fulfill the needs of our emotions and minds as much a part of the concept of well-being as the opportunity to fulfill our material needs. ...As a result of its relationship to the moral nature of man, the forest must be considered one of the essential elements of every society capable of progress." (p. 61) The forest serves the ethical needs of society only while it still lives. When the forest is cut down, its ethical benefit disappears, as well. In this regard, Rudzky emphasized that the focus of national economy science should not be property, but people, and not imaginary people, but real people with their different requirements, both physical and spiritual. Rudzky scientifically substantiated the need for state ownership of the forests. On this topic he wrote, "The state as a forest owner should treat the areas surrounding the state forests almost as it treats the state property itself. The government cannot allow profits derived from state land to harm the general well-being... Private ownership is the least capable of putting the public good before its own interests ...)." (p. 64-65) With his work on forest regulation and forest mensuration, A. F. Rudzky enriched Russian forest science and promoted the development of forest management science in Russia.
xvi In 1877, Rudzky, with A. Bitnyi-Shlyakhto, a member of the Special Forestry Committee (of the Scientific Council), published Forest Regulation, which was written by Friedrich Udeich, director of the Tarand Forest Academy and translated from German (St. Petersburg, 1877,409+VII pp.).
VASILY TARASOVICH SOBICHEVSKY 1838-1902Vasily Tarasovich Sobichevsky27 was born in Lipkani, Bessarabia Province. The Zhitomir chasseur regiment, in which Sobichevsky's father served, was stationed there. In 1855, V. T. Sobichevsky graduated from the Kaments-Podolsk school with a silver medal. He enrolled at Kiev University, where he graduated with a scientific degree in mathematics. Having decided to devote his life to the military, he applied to the First Pioneer Calvary Division, but the division was soon disbanded. In 1860, Sobichevsky enrolled in the forestry course at the Petersburg Forest Academy, which had been especially created for persons with a university degree. Teachers at the academy included the famous forest scientists F. K. Arnold, N. V. Shelgunov, and others. In December 1861, after finishing the theoretical course and spending eight months at the Lisino Forest Training District, SobichevsKy passed the graduation exams and was sent as a master sergeant to the Foresters Corps. In two months, he was sent on a two-year study program to Germany, Austria, Switzerland, and France. In Tarand, he attended lectures by the famous German forester and mathematician M. Pressler. When he returned to Russia, Sobichevsky taught forest mensuration and regulation at the Forest Academy. After the Academy closed in 1865, he taught at the Petrovski Agricultural and Forest Academy in Moscow. He worked there for sixteen years and became the first professor and first dean of the forest division. He combined teaching with research work (he established permanent experimental plots for forest crops at the Academy's experimental estate)28 and business (he managed forest regulation for the Moscow Province as a forest regulation inspector). Sobichevsky's scientific activity began in 1865 when he published a bibliographical review of new works on forest mensuration in the journal Agriculture and Forestry. In 1866, the same journal published his work Results of Work on Several Issues of Forest Mensuration. In 1869, his interesting article on turpentining coniferous species appeared.29 At the time, turpentining was not widely practiced, but the scientist forecast its great future. The article examines the physiological effect of turpentining on the condition and quality of wood, as well as its economic importance. In 1871, Sobichevsky addressed the annual meeting of the Petrovski Academy and noted that the main task of forestry is the continual and beneficial use of timber without causing harm to the forest. This task could be fulfilled through knowledge, using the power of nature over an extended period and man's labor over the course of several generations. He proposed creating experimental forest stations where well-developed long-ter plans could be constantly monitored. The Experimental Forest Estate of the Petrovskaya (no the Timiryazev) Academy was one such station. Experiments developed by Sobichevsky and other scientists continue there even now. In 1872, Moscow hosted a technology exhibition near the Kremlin walls in recognition of the 200th anniversary of the birth of Peter I. It included a large "Forestry Section" that was organized by Sobichevsky. It was the first exhibit in Europe to showcase the accomplishments in forestry and the forest industries. For his work Sobichevsky was awarded a medal commemorating the 200th anniversary of Peter'sbirth. In 1873, Sobichevsky organized the forestry section of the Polytechnical Museum, which he directed until his death. In December 1877, at a meeting of the Society on Animal and Plant Acclimation, Sobichevsky presented a report on the theme "The Significance of the Successful Acclimation of Tree and Shrub Species in Forest Practice." He analyzed the state of this issue in Germany, noting mistakes that had been made in introducing several fast-growing species of North American origin. In conclusion, he made a strong case for the creation of experimental forest stations, where he believed problems with the acclimation of non-native species could be solved. In August 1881, Sobichevsky became the director of the St. Petersburg Forest Institute and remained at the post for six years. At the end of 1887, he performed the duties of vice-inspector of the Foresters Corps, and at the beginning of 1888, he was appointed a member of the Special Forest Committee. After the reorganization of the Ministry of State Properties, he was appointed director of the forest bureau of the Special Forest Committee. Sobichevsky published in nine journals. He wrote the forestry articles for letters B-K and edited the agricultural articles through letter L for the Brockhaus and Efron encyclopedic dictionary.xx From 1870 to 1898, Sobichevsky was a constant participant in the Russian national congresses on agriculture and forestry. He was an honorary member of the Imperial Forest Institute, the Moscow and St. Petersburg Forest Societies, and an acting member of other societies. Vasily Tarasovich Sobichevsky died on February 21,1913 and was buried at the Volkov Cemetery in St. Petersburg, where a monument, built with money collected by foresters, was erected in his honor.27 xxi V. T. Sobichevsyi published a number of articles in various publications.30
xix The encyclopedic dictionary was published by the joint-stock publishing company F. A. Brockhaus and I. A. Efron. The first edition was printed in St. Petersburg with 82 main and 4 supplemental volumes. In 1911-1916 a new edition was undertaken. 29 of the planned 48 volumes were printed. MITROFAN KUZMICH TURSKY 1840-1899Mitrofan Kuzmich Tursky was born in Narva.31 He completed the religious seminaryxxii and graduated from the department of physics and mathematics of the St. Petersburg University. After completing special forestry courses at the Petersburg Forest Institute, he was given the rank of lieutenant in the Foresters Corps and in April 1864 was sent to the Perm Province as a forest surveyor. In 1867, he was appointed forester in the Nizhny Novgorod Province. In April 1869, he was promoted to forest inspector for "outstanding service qualities, work and conscientiousness" and worked at that post for five months. He was then appointed as instructor at the Lisino Forest (wildlife) School near St. Petersburg, where he taught for six years. In 1871, he published Tables for Forest Mensuration.32 In 1875, Tursky was sent to Germany to study forest management, forestation and the teaching of forestry. He visited Prussia, Saxony and Bavaria and became convinced of the need to introduce and develop original methods of forest management. "We have models before us, but it is not enough to copy them. We must take from them only that which is really applicable and useful. The blind imitation of Western European models can lead to unexpected failures, and so it is at times harmful. Many circumstances require that we develop our own forestry methods. Until we begin to use our own independent forest practices, we will spin, as we do now, in an endless cycle of forms and rites, and won't improve our forests one iota."33 On January 23, 1876, Tursky was appointed professor of the Petrovsky Agricultural Academy and chaired the department of forestry. His students included the future famous scientists V. R. Williams and G. N. Vysotsky. Tursky was one of the founders of the Moscow Forest Society. Later he served as chairman of the Society until his death in 1899. The creative legacy of Tursky is extremely diverse. In 1877-1880, he created a series of experimental forest crops at one of the oldest experimental research institutions, the Experimental Forest Estate of the Academy. He conducted an experiment on creating new pine crops through sowing and planting on a former meadow. In 1879, he conducted the first experiments in Russia regarding the effect of the density of a planting on the growth of pine stands. In 1883, he was the first to experiment with the geographical planting of one and two-year-old seedlings.28 He managed to resolve several issues with the help of these stands. These included the effect of tree density on stand growth, the effect of timing and planting methods on forest growth, the effect of tree care on the productivity and quality of the stand, the growth of introduced tree species, and others. In 1893-1899, Tursky led a forest regulation study expedition to the Volga and Dniepr river basins. This expedition strongly influenced the study of the water retentive capabilities of the forest. The expedition initiated the study of forests in the main river basins of the European part of Russia and continued the ideas of V. V. Dokuchayev about the water retention role of the forest. The company of the expedition included a young professor of the Petrovsky Academy and future academician, V. R. Williams (1863-1939), who directed xxiAt the seminary he became friends with Nikoay Gerasimovich Pomyalovsky (1835-1863) who became a writer. the agronomy part of the expedition.xxiii In addition, the company included D. N. Anuchin (1843-1923), who directed the study group on lakes, N. I. Kuznetsov (1864-1932), who was in charge of botany, S. N. Nikitin (1851-1909), a hydrologist. These men all became academicians or corresponding members of the Academy of Sciences. F. G. Zbrozhek, a hydrotechnician, was also a member of the group. Tursky's scientific work encompasses four major areas of forest science and includes forty-three titles. Among the more important works are his unique textbook Forestry.34 which went through six editions. Organization of the Nikolskv Forest Estate.35 and Determining Timber and Branch Volume36 (with L. I. Yashnov). Tursky developed the valuable scale of light requirements for timber species. This scale was the basis for his method to determine the light requirements of trees by growing them in varying light environments. This scale appeared in almost every Russian forestry textbook thereafter. For the conditions of Russia, "our timber species can be scaled in regard to shade tolerance, beginning with those requiring the most light, as follows: larch, birch, common pine, aspen, willow, oak, ash, maple, black alder, elm, Crimean pine, white alder, poplar, hornbeam, spruce, beech and fir.37 The scale for soil fertility requirements is also interesting. "Timber species and shrubs of the central Russian zone can be scaled, beginning with species requiring the most fertile soil, as follows: elm, ash, maple, raspberry, apple, pear, summer oak, small-leafed linden, black alder, white willow, fir, bird-cherry, walnut, common spruce, white alder, cedar, aspen, mountain ash, honeysuckle, buckthorn, birch, larch, sallow willow, common juniper, and common pine. In this sequence, every species can grow in the richer soil required for the following species, but the reverse of this is not true. Of course, there are exceptions"37 Tursky's monograph The Organization of the Nikolskv Forest Estate was for a long time very valuable for beginning forest regulationists. It presents a detailed, scientifically grounded plan for forest management. In one of his first works and in Forestry. Tursky defined when forest management is required and pointed out the need to keep logging strictly commensurate with forest growth. "The main reason for the destruction of the forests is that man has cut them without calculation. He did not limit the annual harvest to a quantity that the forest can reproduce in a year; he cut more than the annual growth. So, there are no more forests."38 "Until the volume of use of a given forest reaches it natural reproductive ability, there will be no need to be concerned about timber production. When use begins to approach the productive capability of the forest, however, it becomes necessary to worry about the supply of forest products. Otherwise, we don't notice that use outweighs production and that the forest becomes depleted. If the depletion of the forest is not reversed, the forest will be destroyed. Thus, the need for forest management becomes tangible only in those forests where the natural production of the forest does not meet the desired volume of use, i.e., when the forest is deficient"37 Tursky's approach to issues of forest regulation and planning was always sober and sometimes tough. He wrote, "Our forest regulation offers a list of proposals and projects to bring our forests into proper condition on the basis of scientifically developed methods. Meanwhile, the proposals have no organisation. There is only a plan, an organisation project. The forests will be organised only when the plan is carried out. Just as a house is considered built not when the plan is drawn up, but when the plan is fulfilled."39 From the economic point of view, Tursky's opinion on the forestation of logging cuts is highly applicable today. He preferred to use natural reforestation when possible. "One must be very careful in dealing with the problem of reforestation on clearcuts so as not to incur excessive expenditures on crops. In the first years, it is difficult to decide if the cut is reforesting or not. In 5-10 years, not earlier, some kind of conclusion can be reached. A period of 5-10 years between the cutting of the forest and its regeneration in long boles cannot be considered significant. There are no timber species that can be considered undesirable"38 A ceremony was held on July 29, 1912, in the square near the forestry department to dedicate a monument to M. K. Tursky. The face of the monument bears the inscription "To M. K. Tursky, 1840-1899" and a bas-relief depicting a peasant boy watching as an old peasant man plants a tree. The back of the monument bears an inscription in bronze letters: "To the glorious sower of forests. From the Russian forest community." N. G. Nesterov, one of Tursky's students, spoke to those gathered. At the end of his address he said, "Here, near the temple of scientific knowledge dedicated to the great deed of serving Russian agriculture, we dedicate this monument. It will serve as a reminder that in the rational coupling of agriculture and forestry lies the key to the flourishing of our national economy, to the beauty and strength of Russia." Professor G. F. Morozov spoke next. "Why did his students and admirers erect this monument to his memory? Above all, because of his moral character, his great kindness, sensitivity and love for people and his remarkable forthrightness... He was a theoretician and a practitioner, one of the first original foresters and forest philosophers. His complete works, with comments by his students, should be published. His literary work, as a reflection of his thoughts and practical activities, should become one of the resources of forestry education. The classics do not age ... they are eternally young." xxiii The joint work of the expedition later led Academician V. R. Williams to acknowledge the great impact of the forest on agriculture. He believed that the forest is a powerful agro-technical tool and as a strong regulator of soil moisture it is a necessary feature of every county and region, regardless of climatic conditions. V. R. Williams highly valued M. K. Tursky as his forestry teacher. MIKHAIL MIKHAILOVICH ORLOV 1867-1932Mikhail Mikhailovich Orlov is a recognized leader in Russian forest science who made a significant contribution to the theory and practice of forest management and forest regulation, forest mensuration and use, and forest education.40 M. M. Orlov was born in Yeletsky county, Orlov Province in a middle-class family.xxiv In 1884, after graduating with honors from technical school, Orlov entered the St. Petersburg Forest Institute. He graduated in 1888xxv and received the rank of forester 1st class. He became a forester's assistant at the Lisino Forest Training District, which was managed at the time by D. M. Kravchinsky. In 1889, he received a scholarship for advanced studies at the forest regulation department at the Forest Institute. In 1890, he was sent for two years of forestry study to Germany, France, Switzerland and Austro-Hungary. When he returned home, Orlov worked from 1892-1894 as the director of the forest regulation team at the Forest Department of the Ministry of State Properties. In 1893, he met V. V. Dokuchayev for the first time. In 1894, Orlov was appointed professor at the Novo-Aleksandrisky Institute of Agriculture and Forestry. When A. F. Rudzky died in 1901, Orlov chaired the department of forest regulation for more than thirty years, until February 1932.xxvi The department included three disciplines: forest mensuration, forest regulation and forest management. In 1902, he became the director of the Okhta forest training estate. From 1904-1907, Orlov was the assistant director of the Petersburg Forest Institute, and in 1907, he became its director. In 1924, he became the first dean of the forestry faculty. In 1925, Professor Orlov was the chairman of Scientific Forest Committee of the Central Forest Authority of the Russian Federation (RSFSR) Narkozem. For his scientific, educational and public works, Orlov was granted the titles of Honored Professor in 1921, Hero of Labor in 1923, and Honored Figure of Science and Technology of the RSFSR in 1928. He was the first Russian forester to receive the latter title. Mikhail Mikhailovich Orlov published 148 books and articles, including 48 on forest regulation, 32 on forest mensuration, 21 on forest management, 19 on forest economy, 15 on silviculture, and 12 on state forest practices. The volume of his published works totaled 600 printer's sheets (10,000 hand-written pages). His most important works in the field of forest mensuration were Forest Mensuration41 (three editions) and Auxiliary Forest Manual42 (eight editions).xxvii Works in the area of forest regulation included "The Okhta Forest Estate,"43 Forest Regulation44 in three volumes,xxviii Forest Management as the Fulfillment of Forest Regulation Planning.45 and Recurrent Issues in Forest Regulation.46 In the fields of forest preservation, forest use and forest management he published "Principles of Forest Preservation in Russia,"47 Forests of the USSR.48 and Water Conservation and Protective Forests and Forest Parks.49 which appeared only in 1983. The book The Okhta Forest Estate is recognized as a classic. It deals with issues that are still important today. These include: forest regulation by forest types, the block method of forest management, tables for pine and fir growth by forest type and by grade within the forest type. Orlov's credo on forest mensuration was expressed in the phrase, "the inquiries of practice and mensuration are not always the same and require different methods. In addition, mensuration must satisfy the inquiries of scientific research, which demands precise results, regardless of how complicated or difficult the methods are. Finally, it is important to understand that serving narrow pragmatism can only be successful when scientific method is applied to all work. It is not enough to be satisfied with knowing the 'how' without also seeking the answer to the question 'why'."50 Oriov understood that the importance of forest mensuration was much broader than presumed by the contemporaries of Rudzky and his own colleagues, who interpreted Rudzky's views on the "mathemati-zation" of forest mensuration without complete accuracy.xxix In 1911, Professor Oriov developed a classification system for stands by grade classes that was very significant for the development of forest regulation. His general grade scale is still used today. It must be noted that Oriov contributed to the compilation of forest regulation instructions of 1904xxx and 1908. He was in charge of the compilation of the Instructions of 1911,1914 and 1926. The basic premises of the 1926 Instructions were in force until the 1950's.xxxi Oriov developed an original system of regional economic divisions of the USSR based on percentages of forest land, population, transportation and economic development of the forest. Oriov dedicated Forest Regulation, in three volumes, to the memory of his teachers F. K. Arnold and A. F. Rudzky. This major scientific practical work summarized forest regulation experience around the world. There is not another professional scientific work of this stature in the world literature of the field. The book deals with the principles of scientific method, efficiency, scholarship and practicality. Oriov supported scientific forest typology. He opposed only the descriptive aspect of this issue. He focused his attention on the deep silvicultural (and economic) study of concrete forest types in the interest of both science and forestry. His works further developed the basic principles originated by Russian scientists on forest typology. These include Rudzky's prototype and monoform (1888), V. Ya. Dobroblyansky's stand types (1888), Kravchinsky's silvicultural types (1896), N. K. Genko's stand types (1902), Morozov's stand types (1904), and others. Oriov advocated mechanized concentrated clear cuts not only on scientific grounds. He was also a supporter of selective cutting. He developed a method for gradual selective cutting, which entered the forestry textbooks as a method called the Oriov cut. At the turn of the century he proposed clear cutting and trough cutting on the "Ruda" forest estate near Novo-Aleksandria based on the use of advance growth for pine.51 Orlov devoted much attention to the issue of reforestation and focused on ways to create forest crops using mechanization. He dealt with this issue in a number of his works: A Historical View on Artificial Forest Regeneration in Russia (1895), Research Report on Forest Crop Work in the State Forest Districts of Several Russian Regions. (1903), The Needs of Russian Forestry (1906) and others. In his monograph Forest Management as the Fulfillment of Forest Regulation Planning, Orlov summarized forest management experience worldwide. Orlov considered it strange that in a country where forests covered more than half of the territory, forest management and forest economics played a small role in the overall management of the national economy. Forest economics was always treated as a "stepchild" to one of the more influential partners (branches of industry), who worried the least about the fate of the forests and forest practices. In this regard, Orlov wrote, "Forestry in Russia is one of a kind. . . and the structure of management must be special..." At this time in Russia there was not a forest ministry that represented forestry interests. Therefore Orlov wrote that, "when various interests clash with the forest, the latter, having no special representation, is always doomed to defeat. This is because it is difficult to escape the preconception that our forests are many and that they grow by themselves. If something in them is not quite right, it does not have to be dealt with today or by us, but sometime in the future and by those who come after us." In this regard he recommended and substantiated scien-tifically the reorganization of forest practices. "The first step of forest management reform should be to make it independent, to make it economically self-sufficient. Forest management should be guided not by economizing on expenditures, but increasing income" However, the independence of forestry had to be tempered with increased accountability for the results of its actions. He gave the main responsibility for this to the forester, who is "the center and soul of any system of forest management." In the area of forest experimentation, Orlov published Views on Organizing Forest Experimentation in Russia (1915) and Reviving Forest Experimentation on a National Scale (1926). He developed the first project to organize forest experimentation in Russia in 1896. From 1907-1917, he chaired a standing committee on forest experimentation. During the years of Soviet power (1917-1930), he also directed the USSR agencies on forest experimentation. M. M. Orlov devoted special attention to the issue of forest ownership and the creation of a unified forest policy for the whole country. He was adamantly opposed to the localization of forestry, about which he wrote, "All parts of the country stand to benefit from the development of a standardized Russian forest management system. In this regard, narrow local, county or regional measures regarding the forests of European Russia cannot be allowed to dominate or even to appear that are not subordinate to the general principles, which should be established for the forests of the entire country". Orlov created his own scientific school which included renowned scientists, educators and practitioners, such as N. P. Anuchin, A. A. Baitin, N. I. Baranov, S. A. Bogoslovsky, P. V. Voropanov, 0. 0. Gernitz, V. K. Zakharov, G. P. Motovilov, A. A. Tarashkevich, M. Ye. Tkachenko, D. I. Tovstoles, N. V. Tretyakov, A. V. Tyurin, M. M. Shef, and others. M. M. Orlov died on December 25, 1932 at work from a brain hemorrhage. His death was the result of public persecution of the scientist for his "bourgeois theories." Orlov never changed "his position regarding the sustainability of forest use.xxxiii Over the course of thirty years not a single significant national forestry problem was solved without the help of Orlov. A Russian proverb states that "Much is expected from him, to whom much has been given." M. M. Orlov was given much, but even more was asked of him. He was the main recipient of blame for all that was wrong in the country's forest sector, from science to industrial forest operations. Orlov's authority and publicistic skills were so great, however, that he was victorious in the debate. Then his work and, more importantly, his replies to his opponents, ceased to be published. Insults and personal attacks poured in from all sides. The cruelest blow came at the beginning of the 1932-33 academic year when Orlov was expelled from the department he had chaired for thirty years. Orlov's name was discredited for many yearsxxxiii and Russian forestry was a long time recovering, as were genetics and selection and the scientists who created them. Despite everything, the creative legacy of M. M. Orlov remains. As a scientist, educator, practitioner, and administrator, Orlov rightfully belongs among the giants of Russian forest science.
xxiv His mother, Darya Alekseyevna Kostomarova, was the niece of the famous Russian historian N. I. Kostomarov (1817-1885). The family had five sons-Mikhail, Fyodor, Pavel, Vladimir and Socrat-and one daughter, Maria. All of the boys except Mikhail entered the cadet corps and became professional military men. The daughter was not educated. NIKOLAY PAVLOVICH ANUCHIN 1903-1984Nikolay Pavlovich Anuchin was one of the most important specialists in the fields of forest use, forest regulation and forest mensuration during the Soviet period. He was born in the village of Larikovo, Kirillov County, Vologda Province.xxxiv His father was the manager of a small privately owned butter factory. N. P. Anuchin, who grew up among the vast Vologda forests, went to Moscow where he decided to enroll at the Moscow Technical Forest Institutexxxv He then changed his mind and set off for Petrograd, where in 1921 he enrolled at the Petrograd (Leningrad from 1924) Forest Institute (now the St. Petersburg Technical Forest Academy). His teachers included leading scientists and educators. M. M. Orlov chaired the department of forest regulation and was the dean of the forestry faculty. V. N. Obolensky taught physics and meteorology. B. N. Menshutkin taught general chemistry. N. N. Pavlovsky, a future academician of the USSR, taught hydrotechnology and N. I. Nikitin, who later became a corresponding member of the USSR Academy of Sciences, taught timber and forest chemistry. M. N. Rimsky-Korsakov taught biology, general zoology and forest entomology. A. A. Yachevsky, later a corresponding member of the USSR Academy of Sciences, taught a course on phytopathology. M. E. Tkachenko taught general forestry, while N. P. Kobranov taught specific forestry and L. A. Ivanov taught plant anatomy and physiology. G. G. Dopplemaier taught the biology of forest animals and birds, K. K. Gedroitz taught soil science and A. K. Mitropolsky taught statistics. When Anuchin graduated from the forest regulation department of the Institute, he was sent to work as an assistant forester at the Lisino Experimental Training Forest District. One time directors of the district included I. G. Voinyukov, F. K. Arnold, N. V. Shelgunov, D. M. Kravchinsky, N. P. Kobranov, M. M. Orlov, and M. Ye. Tkachenko. Anuchin soon became a district forester. With the scientific guidance of M. M. Orlov he published his first articles on setting prices and calculating the cost of timber products.52 In 1929, Anuchin became the chief specialist of the Scientific Forest Committee of the Central Forest Administration of the Narkomzem RSFSR and moved to Moscow. In 1935, he defended his candidate's dissertation, in 1939 his doctoral dissertation and was made a professor. In 1944, he became the chairman of the department of forest mensuration and forest regulation of the Moscow Technical Forest Institute (now the Moscow State Forest University) and remained so until his death forty years later. Anuchin actively worked at high-level administrative positions and was continually drawn by work at higher educational institutions.xxxvi In 1956, Anuchin became a corresponding member and in 1966 an academician at the All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences. He worked as an academician-secretary at the Academy 1960-1965. Anuchin addressed many world forest congresses (USA, Spain, Austria), international conferences, symposia and seminars. He was an honorary member and laureate of a number of foreign academies and universities (Finland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia). During the course of his fifty-year academic career Anuchin trained a large number of forestry and forest industry specialists. He leant his scientific guidance to the preparation of over forty candidate and doctoral dissertations. Anuchin published over 250 works.53 His textbooks, books, and references provided a reliable guide for many generations of forestry students and practitioners. Anuchin's great contribution was recognized with the highest awards of the USSR: the Order of Lenin, two Orders of the Red Banner of Labor, the Order of Peoples' Friendship and many other medals. Anuchin played a visible role in developing the theory and practice of forest mensuration, sustainable forest use, forest organization, and development of the theories of forest utilization and harvest maximization. The period between the late 1940' to the early 1960's again saw heated discussion of the principle of sustainable use. The censure of the Orlov school, to which Anuchin and only a few others remained faithful, had its impact on the debate. In defending the principle of sustainable use against periodic use, Anuchin decided to appeal to public opinion about the fate of the country's forests. He and his colleague Ye. 0. Lopukhov turned to the already famous writer L. M. Leonov. Leonov's novel The Russian Forest (in the magazine Znamya) - for which the author received the Lenin Prize in 1957 - appeared at the end of 1953 and gave birth to new discussion. The mission had been accomplished; the theory of sustainable use gained public support. Anuchin contributed a great service when he introduced the theory of sustainable use in Principles of Forest Legislation of the USSR and Union Republics (1977). Anuchin's major works include Grading and Marketing Tables (seven editions). Forest Mensuration (five editions, translated into many languages). Forest Regulations (two editions), The Theory and Practice of Forest Organization (1977), Forestry and Nature Conservation (1979) and Problems of Forest Use (1984). Nikolay Pavlovich Anuchin died on June 7, 1984 unexpectedly at a general institute meeting when he descended from the podium after his speech. On the same day, his eldest daughter, Galina defended her doctoral dissertation in chemistry.
xxxiv The author of the article, V. K. Teplyakov, was Anuchin's last Ph.D. student. LITERATURE CITED1. Manual on Forest Unit Management at the Mines of the Ural Range Based on Principles of Forest Science and Efficiency. 1830. St. Petersburg, Ministry of Finance Publications.2. Klimov,V. I. 1950. Aleksandr Yefimovich Teploukhov in: Forestry, No. 4. 3. Surveys and Preliminary Organization of the Forest on Private Estates. 1840. Forestry, Part 3, Book 3. p. 323-395. 4. Instructions on Forestry: Forests, Logging, Forest Cleanup, Deforestation. Rural Discussions. Readings for students of the Marino School of Applied Agriculture and Trades. 1842. Talks XII-XV, St. Petersburg. 5. Forest Organization on Country Estates. Manual for Stewards, Foresters, Land Surveyors. 1848. Compiled by Aleksandr Teploukhov, Corresponding Member of the Imperial Free Economic Society. Publication made possible by a grant from the Free Economic Society, St. Petersburg, VII. 225 pp., with five tables. 6. • A short description of forest practices at the Perm entailed estate of the Stroganovs, 1859. • A look at forestry on the industrial estates of Countess N. P. Stroganova, 1859. • A historical look at forestry practices at the Perm common estate of Countess N. P. Stroganova, 1881. 7. Thinning and Selective Cutting. 1848. Forest Journal, No. 27. p. 209-214. 8. Depletion of Water Sources after Clearing the Soil of Forest Growth. 1942. Forest Journal, Part IV, Book 1. p. 126-127. 9. Detailed Instructions on Simple Methods to Mechanically Break Down Forest Soil. 1850. Forest Journal, No. 16, p. 126-127, No. 17, p. 129-132, No. 18, p. 137-139. 10. Advantages and Disadvantages of Cleaning Up Deadfall, Brushwood, and Other Litter in the Forest. 1850. Forest Journal. Issues 2 & 3. 11. Polyakov, A. N. 1991. An Outstanding Figure in Forest Mensuration and Regulation (on the 175th Anniversary of the Birth ofVargas de Bedemar). Forestry, No. 11. p. 46-47. 12. Forest Journal. 1846. Nos. 1 & 2. 13. Vargas de Bedemar, A. R. 1850. The Study of Forest Stock and Growth in the Stands of the St. Petersburg Province from 1843 to 1848. St. Petersburg. First publication: Vargas de Bedemar, A. R. 1848. The Study of Forest Stock and Growth in the Stands of the St. Petersburg Province from 1843 to 1848. Forest Journal, Nos. 45,47,48,49. 14. Polyakov, A. N. 1993. 130 Years of the Experimental Forestry Estate TSKhA: An Overview. Moscow, VNIITsLesresurs, 2-26 pp. (Silviculture and Forestation, Issue 5), p. 2. 15. Schwappach, A. 1909. The Study of Mixed Stands. Forest and Hunting. No. 5. 16. Polyakov, A. N. 1994. The Patriarch of Russian Forestry; On the 175th Anniversary of the Birth of F. K. Arnold. Forestry, No. 6, p. 16-17. 17. Arnold, F. K. 1858. Forest Mensuration. Course of Instruction at the Forest and Survey Institute, St. Petersburg, VI, 276 pp. and 26 tables (2nd edition, 1868, VII, 282 pp. 18. Arnold, F. K. 1893. The Russian Forest, 2nd edition, St. Petersburg. A. F. Marks Publishing, Vol. 1 - xvi, 325 pp., + 79 pp. of appendixes; Vol. 2 - xx, 705 pp. with appendixes, 17 plates and 125 wood engravings; Vol. 3, 585 pp. and 425 drawings. 19. Anuchin, N. P. 1950. Aleksandr Felitsianovich Rudzky in: Leading Figures in Russian Forestry, Issue 2. Moscow, Goslesbumizdat. pp. 30-49. 20. Rudzky, A. F. Forest Mensuration. St. Petersburg. 21. Rudzky, A. F. 1877. Forest Regulation. 22..Rudzky, A. F. 1899. A Brief Summary of Forest Regulation. St. Petersburg. 23. Rudzky, A. F. 1888,1893. Guide to the Organization of Russian Forests. St. Petersburg. 24. Rudzky, A. F. 1897. The Forestry Reference Book. St. Petersburg. 25. Rudzky, A. F. 1881. Discussions on the Forest. St. Petersburg. 26. Forest Journal. 1880. Petrograd. No. 1, p. 45. 27. Polyakov, A. N. 1993. Famous Names: V. T. Sobichevsky. Forestry. No. 3, p. 41-43. 28. Polyakov, A. N. 1993. 130 Years of the Experimental Forest Estate of the TSKhA: An Overview. Moscow, VNIITsLesresurs, 2-26 pp. (Silviculture and Forestation, Issue 5). 29. The Importance of Tapping Coniferous Trees in Forest Practice as a Secondary Use of the Russian Forests. 1869, Moscow, Moscow Agricultural Society. Russian Agriculture. 30. • In addition to those mentioned above: Innovations in Using Form Factors to Determine the Stock Volume. 1873. Forest Journal, Issue 3. • The Present State of Harvest Rotations and Forest Management Practices. 1873. Russian Agriculture. • On the Question of Size of Tree Stem Thickness Classes When Determining Stock Volume. 1878. News of the Petrovski Agricultural and Forest Academy. • Materials for Forest Statistics Collected at the Petrovski Forest Estate. Forest Journal. 31. Eitingen, G. F. 1950. Mitrofan Kuzmich Tursky in Leading Figures of Russian Forestry, 2nd edition, Moscow, Goslesbumizdat. p. 50-55. Vostryshev, M. A. Forestry Giant in: Moskovskaya Pravda, April 25, 1996. 32. Tursky, M. K. 1871. Tables for Forest Mensuration. Moscow. 8 editions. 33. Tursky, M. K. 1877. Models of Forest Management. Forest Journal, No. 1. 34. Tursky, M. K. 1892. Forestry. Moscow, V. Marakuyev Publishers. 356 pp. 35. Tursky, M. K. 1886. Organization of the Nikolsky Forest Estate. Moscow. 36. Tursky, M. K. 1885. Determining Timber and Branch Volume, Moscow. 4th edition. 37. Tursky, M. K. 1954. Moscow. Forestry, 6th edition. 38. Tursky, M. K. 1872. New Forest Growth after Logging. Agriculture and Forestry, August. 39. Tursky, M. K. 1871. Some Observations on Accountability on Forest Management for 1868. Agriculture and Forestry, October, p. 113-125. 40. Works of Professor M. M. Orlov and their Significance to Forestry (on the 100th anniversary of his birth). 1969. Scientific Works of the LLTA, No. 129, Leningrad, 160 pp. Materials of the conference dedicated to the 125th anniversary of the birth of M. M. Orlov. 1993. Moscow, VNIILM. 54 pp. 41. Orlov, M. M. 1923. Forest Mensuration, Petrograd, New Village. 420 pp.; Orlov, M.M. 1929. Forest Mensuration, 3rd edition, reedited and supplemented, Leningrad, Forestry and Forest Industry. 532 pp. 42. Orlov, M.M. 1910. Auxiliary Forest Booklet, For Foresters, Forest Surveyors and Forest Owners, St. Petersburg, A. F. Marks Publishers. 193 pp.; Orlov, M. M., Auxiliary Forest Booklet. For Mensuration and Technical Calculations. 1931. Moscow, Leningrad, Selkolkhozgiz, 8th edition. 729 pp. 43. Orlov, M.M. 1907. The Okhta Forest Estate Under the St. Petersburg Forest Institute. News of the Forest Institute, Issue 16. p. 1-170. 44. Orlov, M.M. 1927. Elements of Forest Practice. Forest Regulation, Vol. 1. Leningrad. Forestry, Forest Industry and Fuel. 428 pp.; Planning Preparation for Forest Practice. 1928. Forest Regulation, Vol. 2. Leningrad. Forestry, Forest Industry and Fuel. 326 pp.; Forest Practice Planning, 1928. Forest Regulation, Vol. 3. Leningrad. Forestry, Forest Industry and Fuel. 348 pp. 45. Orlov, M.M. 1930. Forest Management as the Fulfillment of Forest Regulation Planning. Leningrad. Forestry and Forest Industry. 491 pp. 46. Orlov, M.M. 1931. Recurtent Issues in Forest Regulation (1927-1930). Materials for the Review of Forest Regulation Technology Issues. Leningrad. Forestry and Forest Industry. 171 pp. 47. Orlov, M. M. 1911. Principles of Forest Preservation in Russia. Report to the Russian National Congress of Forest Owners and Managers for the Discussion of a Protective Forest Zone. St. Petersburg. 69 pp. 48. Orlov, M.M. 1931, Forests of the USSR: A Statistical Review. Moscow, Leningrad, Gosnauchtekhizdat. 95 pp. 49. Orlov, M. M. 1983. Water Conservation and Protective Forests and Forest Parks, Organizing and Implementing Practices. Moscow, Forest Industry. 88 pp. 50. Orlov, M. M., 1928. Forest Mensuration. Petrograd. p. 8. 51. Marchenko, A. G. 1916. Use of Pine Undergrowth at the 'Ruda' Forest Estate in Collected Articles on Forestry in Honor of 25 Years of Professor M. M. Orlov's Work, Petrograd. p. 163-170. 52. Anuchin.N.P. 1928. Setting Prices for Timber Products. Forestry and Forest Industry, No. 2, p. 19-26; Anuchin.N.P. 1929. Methods of Calculating the Base Price of Timber Products. Forestry and Forest Industry, No. 2/3, p. 33-41. 53. Anuchin, N. P. 1984. Bibliography of Agricultural Scientists. Moscow, VASKhNIL. 32 pp.
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